Article Alert

March 2008

ALERT, a monthly publication of the Information Resource Center at Public Affairs Section of American Consulate General Shenyang, offers abstracts of current articles in major areas of U.S. domestic or international affairs. Full-text articles are available to you upon request. To request articles, please contact the Information Resource Center by telephone , fax, e-mail xiaob@state.gov, or by mail. To request mail, please circle the articles you wish to receive, include your name, address, and telephone number and return this list to us.  DISCLAIMER: articles and links to non-U.S. government Internet sites should not be construed as an endorsement of the views contained therein.

The Rule of Law

1. ENERGY AND DEMOCRACY: THE EUROPEAN UNION ’S CHALLENGE
Wood, Steve 
Current History, vol. 107, no. 707, March 2008, pp. 133-138

The author, a research fellow at the School of Political and International Studies at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia, writes that the European Union’s dependence upon imported energy supplies is compromising a central feature of the EU’s image, that of a committed promoter of democratization and civic freedoms. As with the U.S. , many of the EU’s energy suppliers are countries with autocratic regimes and poor human-rights records, with the state having a controlling interest in the resources and using it for geopolitical ends. The EU’s growing energy dependence means that its suppliers have little incentive to carry out democratic reforms. Wood notes that Russia is central in the EU’s quandary, as several of the former Soviet republics that the EU is trying to influence are themselves dependent on Russian energy supplies. The author asserts that the EU can do little to oblige undemocratic energy producers to change without the backing of the U.N. and the U.S.

2. SEPARATION ANXIETY 
Victor, Kirk
National Journal, Vol. 40, No. 6, February 9, 2008 pp. 26-33


As Election Day nears, political experts are paying close attention to Congressional elections as well. This article looks at the challenges Senators Susan Collins of Maine , Norm Coleman of Minnesota , John Sununu of New Hampshire and Gordon Smith of Oregon face in their 2008 re-election bids. The Republicans all share the same problem -– in 2002, at the height of President Bush’s popularity, they ran as strong Bush allies. Since then, the president’s approval rating has dropped and their states have favored Democrats in recent elections. The author examines the current state of their races and identifies strategies the Senators are using to highlight their independent nature while their Democratic opponents try to tie them to the president.

Economics and Trade

3. CHANGING THE POLITICAL CLIMATE ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Daschle, TomGeorgetown
Journal of International Affairs, vol. IX, no. 1, Winter/Spring 2008, pp. 93-101

The former Democratic senator from South Dakota , now with the Center for American Progress, believes that the United States must act with urgency to lead the international response to the threat of climate change. However, Daschle argues that the single biggest obstacle to implementing a comprehensive climate change policy is the lack of political will in Washington , especially among the administration officials responsible for implementing it who seem to have ceded leadership to the European Union, isolating the U.S. in the process. The next U.S. president, along with facing other important global and domestic challenges such as reforming the health care system and stopping Iran’s nuclear program, faces the emerging consequences of climate change and the looming deadline of the 2012 expiration of phase I of the Kyoto Protocol. By leading the international response to the threat of climate change, the U.S. will be more environmentally and economically secure but also better positioned to lead the world on other pressing challenges.

4. CHARTING THE FUTURE OF FOOD
Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, vol. 9, no. 1, Winter/Spring 2008, pp. 3-6

New technologies are forcing rapid globalization of markets, and the agriculture industry has no choice but to adapt. There is, however, a stark disparity between developed and developing nations; a biotech and GMO revolution is occurring in developed nations, while developing nations are struggling to overcome unfavorable intellectual property laws and trade barriers. Biofuel production is consuming more agricultural resources, raising food prices and reducing exports. Though policy experts participating in the current round of trade negotiations in Doha are attempting to address the challenges facing farmers, the outcome is unclear. This forum explores the fate of farming in the 21st century. The four articles in the forum include: “The Softest Subsidy” (Kym Anderson and Ernesto Valenzuela) on agricultural subsidy cuts; “Food, Feed, or Fuel?” (Siwa Msangi and Mandy Ewing) which explores the linkages between biofuels and agricultural market economies; “Agricultural Trade and Climate Change” (Lee Ann Jackson) which asks if the WTO can promote resilience in the face of uncertainty; and “The Local Organic Food Paradigm” (Alex A. Avery and Dennis T. Avery) which debates the merits of local vs. global food systems.

5. FAST 50: THE WORLD'S MOST INNOVATIVE COMPANIES
Salter, Chuck, Et Al.
Fast Company, no. 123, March 2008, pp. 73-117

Writers from the magazine Fast Company identify 50 companies that are moving forward in innovative ways. Some companies are included on the list for their new patents granted this year, others for innovative management techniques, or new products brought to market. Tata made the list for trying to bring a $2500 car to India and GE for re-engineering the CF34 jet engine. Communications and computer firms are represented as well as niche retailers. Google is first on the list and the authors describe what makes Google is an innovative company through profiles of Google managers.

6. FERMENTING THE FOOD SUPPLY: MODELLING BIOFUEL PRODUCTION AS AN INFECTIOUS GROWTH ON FOOD    PRODUCTION
Staniford, Stuart
Oil Drum, January 7, 2008

The author, a consulting scientist and computer security researcher, notes that it is now generally recognized that biofuels production is having an inflationary effect on food prices, and that in the U.S. , ethanol production is growing rapidly and is consuming a significant fraction of the corn harvest. Staniford writes that globally, biofuels production is several years behind that in the U.S. , and warns that if it continues on an upward trajectory similar to that in the U.S. , it has the potential to cause widespread starvation among the poor, possibly within the next five years. In this technical but readable article, using a variety of methods, including infection/diffusion modelling, Staniford believes that, like a bacterial growth in a Petri dish, world biofuels production is at the beginning stages of a rapid upward growth that will consume an increasing share of the annual global food supply.

7. MICKEY GOES TO WASHINGTON
Birnbaum, Jeffrey
Washington Post Magazine, February 17, 2008, pp. 10-15, 22-26

Today, there are at least 261,000 lobbyists, twice as many as eight years ago, while fees paid to individual registered lobbyists have also doubled to more than $2 billion a year. To illustrate the pervasiveness of lobbying in Washington , the author, business writer for the Washington Post, discusses the strategy the travel industry is using to bring foreign tourists to the United States and how its lobbyists are trying to get the U.S. Congress to foot the marketing bill. As the events of Sept. 11 recede and tourism has started to come back, the industry’s main lobby, the Travel Industry Association, has decided it needed federal assistance; the agenda of the Discover America Partnership is to persuade the federal government to fund a $200 million tourism marketing campaign.

Global Issues

8. BIG FOOT
Specter, Michael
New Yorker, February 25, 2008, pp. 44-53

The chief executive of the U.K.-based Tesco supermarket company made a speech last year in which he acknowledged the need to drastically reduce carbon-dioxide emissions, and said that his company would assign a “carbon footprint” label to all their products. The author notes that “possessing an excessive carbon footprint is rapidly becoming the modern equivalent of wearing a scarlet letter,” with companies and individuals alike throughout the industrialized world jumping on the “green” bandwagon. The carbon cost of most products is not reflected in their prices, so supporters of market-based approaches say that carbon needs to be priced high enough to discourage consumption. However, the author notes, personal choices and habits are not enough, and climate change cannot be addressed solely through creating a market -– it will take laws, money, many simultaneous approaches, and more -– to reduce humanity’s carbon emissions by sixty percent by the middle of the century.

9. BUYING A CURE
Groopman, Jerome
New Yorker, vol. 83, no. 45, January 28, 2008, pp. 38-43

In 1998, when Kathy Giusti created the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation, a charitable organization dedicated to the lethal blood cancer, she realized that in order to accelerate the development of new myeloma drugs, she needed to foster greater collaboration between researchers at different academic institutions. In 2002, she decided to assemble a consortium of scientists who would be required to submit their research proposals to a steering committee for approval, and to publish their results jointly. In exchange, the scientists would receive access to a tissue bank of myeloma blood cells and bone marrow, as well as administrative and organizational support for lab tests and clinical trials. The consortium now has thirteen members, and at least two more institutions are expected to join this year. Most medical charities have traditionally focused on increasing public awareness and on raising money to distribute to researchers, in the hope that some of the work will lead to a new drug or a cure. The author notes that, since Giusti established her foundation, medical philanthropies that apply business principles to their work have become increasingly common.

10. A CHANGING CLIMATE: THE ROAD AHEAD FOR THE UNITED STATES
Stern, Todd; Antholis, William
Washington Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 1, Winter 2007-2008, pp. 175-187

The next U.S. president must adopt an aggressive policy to address global climate change, according to these authors who are with the Center for American Progress and the Brookings Institution respectively. They recommend that the president engage in a “layered diplomacy,” with a focus on a core group of nations responsible for a majority of world emissions. The next American chief executive should also step up the nation’s engagement with the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change and China , soon to surpass the United States as the world’s greatest emitting nation. The G-8 group is the model for one multilateral forum suggested by the authors to focus on global warming. They recommend the creation of an E-8 to address critical ecological dangers involving executive level representation from Brazil , China , the European Union, India , Japan , Russia , South Africa , and the United States . The authors’ most emphatic point is that the threats of global warming are too imperative to ignore: “These daunting risks should impel us to take aggressive action to insure the world against grave harm”, they write. This article is one of a series, CLIMATE POLICY CROSSROADS, in this issue.

11. CHILD LABOR: WHY WE CAN’T KICK OUR ADDICTION
Bahree, Megha
Forbes, February 25, 2008, pp. 72-79

Although there are national and international laws against it, child labor remains a global phenomenon. Companies with stores in the U.S. such as GapKids and Macy’s, Ikea, Lowe’s and Home Depot all claim to have strict policies against selling products made by children, yet such products continue to appear on their shelves. As Bahree writes: “There are many links in the supply chain, and even a well-intentioned importer can’t police them all.” Middlemen find ways to duck responsibility by removing labels that identify a product’s country of origin. Moreover, there are few people to monitor overseas operations to insure that abuses do not occur. The UN International Labor Organization guesses that there are 218 million child laborers worldwide; most of them work in agriculture. The Asia-Pacific region claims the greatest share of underage workers (122 million) followed by sub-Saharan Africa (49 million). Notable offenders: Cambodia , Mali , Burkina Faso , Bolivia and Guatemala . Bahree writes that child labor is “a fact of a global economy, and will continue to be, as long as Americans (and Europeans) demand cheap goods -– and incomes in emerging economies remain low.”

12. THE LAST GREAT LAND GRAB
Gagnon, Geoffrey
Wired, vol. 16, no. 2, February 2008, pp. 86-89

Nations around the world face a deadline to make new territorial claims on the continental shelf that extends from their shorelines out into the sea. The U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea will allow nations to stake claims to territory on the shelf, but they must submit undersea maps of their claim within 10 years of their ratification of the treaty. So far, few nations have done so, but more are likely to submit their claims to a U.N. adjudicating panel soon. The rights to hundreds of millions of square kilometers and the oil and mineral rights that go with them are at stake. Gagnon follows a U.S. marine geologist on a mapping expedition and explains some of the technical points of the mapping process that will determine how greatly some nations may be able to expand their boundaries.

13. PHANTOM MENACE
Judis, John B.
New Republic, vol. 238, no. 4829, February 13, 2008, pp. 20-25

In this article, the author tries to explore the psychology behind America ’s immigration hysteria. There have been periodic bursts of anti-immigration fervor in the U.S. since the mid-nineteenth century, mostly directed at immigrants from Eastern Europe or religious groups such as Catholics and Jews. Anti-immigration sentiment against Muslims grew after the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks; however, much of the current anti-immigration sentiment today is propelled by native-born Americans who feel threatened by the new global capitalism, as businesses that once flourished in small American towns have cut back or closed entirely and jobs have gone overseas. Anti-immigration fear is expected to play a large role in the in the 2008 presidential elections.

Regional Security

14. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
Troy , Jodok
Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, vol. 9, no. 1, Winter/Spring 2008, pp. 65-73

The author, a research assistant at the University of Innsbruck , believes that the Catholic Church, as one of the oldest political actors in the international system, lends its stabilizing capabilities to become once more an “ethical reservoir” and peacemaker in an age of a declared and believed “clash of civilizations.” This is partly because Catholicism itself is a more integrative and stabilizing force in international relations because it has no revolutionary tendency. During the Cold War period but especially since the Second Vatican Council, which ended in 1965, the Church has evolved from a promoter of the status quo to an active liberation force. Its position has shifted from a de facto alliance with the West to a position of non-alignment that it continues to maintain today. The current pope, Benedict XVI, focuses his policies on social and ethical issues that reflect the more complex world that exists today.

15. CONNECTING TERRORIST NETWORKS
Magouirk, Justin; Atran, Scott; Sageman, Marc
Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 31, no. 1, 2008, pp. 1-16

Terrorism, a defining phenomenon of the current times, is a varied class of political violence that can be characterized with multiple ideological motivations, varied tactics, and varying levels of lethality, according to the authors. They have recently completed research from the Global Transnational Terrorism Project, but plan an additional study later in 2008. Clearly in their research, they have revealed that terrorism is not monolithic as is often characterized by the news media and policymakers. The research also demonstrates two important components to terrorism -– the groups are global and they target the "far enemy" not of local origin. These characteristics are important for policymakers, who are confronted with a challenge often poorly understood. The research also indicates that madrassahs, or religious schools, have little to do in general with the creation of terrorists. One interesting aspect of the research is that kinship plays a vital role in binding terrorist groups that are often decentralized and that networks are increasingly family-oriented.

16. THE COSTS OF CONTAINING IRAN : WASHINGTON 'S MISGUIDED NEW MIDDLE EAST POLICY 
Nasr, Valia; Takeyh, Ray 
Foreign Affairs, Vol. 87, No. 1, January-February 2008

Containing Iran is a Cold War fantasy doomed to fail, according to Nasr, professor of international politics at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy and adjunct senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, and Takeyh, a senior fellow at the council. They say Iran could pose threats to U.S. , Arab, or Israeli interests. "But envisioning that a grand U.S.-Arab-Israeli alliance can contain Iran will sink Afghanistan, Iraq, and Lebanon into greater chaos; inflame Islamic radicalism; and commit the United States to a lengthy and costly presence in the Middle East," they say. Iran is not a messianic power aiming to spread Islamic militancy, but rather an ambitious rising state seeking to assert influence in its region. The U.S. should aim to integrate Iran into the region in a way that all relevant powers have a stake in preserving regional stability.

17.  DEMOCRACY, AL QAEDA, AND THE CAUSES OF TERRORISM: A STRATEGIC ANALYSIS OF U.S. POLICY 
Freeman, Michael
Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 31, no. 1, 2008, pp. 40-59

New research indicates that the widespread belief that the power of democracy can defeat terrorism in its many forms is misplaced. Professor Freeman of the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School argues that promoting democracy does little to change perceptions when a nation is also occupied by a foreign army. The belief that promoting democracy will stop the spread of terrorism is based on the idea that terrorism is caused by or encouraged by a lack of democracy and political participation by citizens in a particular nation. But people suffering from the frustrations and humiliations that result from growing economic, social, political and military failures, and without the means to peacefully resolve them, will in time turn to terrorism as an alternative form of protest, Freeman says. And the promotion of democracy in many Middle Eastern countries is often perceived as a threat to Islamic identity and culture, and is unlikely to change economic grievances. And, many in the Middle East also believe that democracy is unlikely to provide a more legitimate government than one based on religious law, Freeman says.

18. THE NEW AGGRESSIVENESS IN IRAN ’S FOREIGN POLICY 
Gasiorowski, Mark
Middle East Policy Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, Summer 2007, pp. 125-132

Gasiorowski, professor at Louisiana State University , explores appropriate American responses to the new aggressive foreign policy displayed by Iran in the areas of its nuclear program as well as Iraq . Causes of the aggressiveness in Iran ’s foreign policy are attributed to recent changes inside Iran and its foreign policy environment. Constraints inside the country serve to limit Iran ’s foreign policy aggressiveness. These constraints include limited capabilities of Iranian armed forces and popular discontent and resentment due to economic conditions, international isolation and cultural restrictions.

19. QUESTIONABLE REWARD: ARMS SALES AND THE WAR ON TERRORISM
Stohl, Rachel
Arms Control Today, vol. 38, no. 1, February 2008, pp. 17-23

Stohl, a senior analyst at the private, Washington-based Center for Defense Information, investigates how various forms of U.S. military security assistance is being used to solidifying partners in the global war against terrorism. In the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks against the United States, she examines the pattern of arms sales and military training and aid given to 25 nations in every part of the world (except the Americas) which are either front-line states in counterterrorism efforts or face significant terrorist threat in their region. Her article includes two helpful sidebars: one addressing U.S. weapons export policy and another comparing changes in U.S. military assistance and arms sales from fiscal years 1997-2001 to FY 2002-2006. The author suggests that it would be best if the United States abided by long-standing export laws to ensure that arms exports don’t “undermine security and stability, weaken democracy, support military coups, escalate arms races, exacerbate ongoing conflicts, or cause arms buildups in unstable regions or are used to commit human rights abuses.” This might entail scaling back military aid to close allies such as Pakistan , Ethiopia , and Djibouti , she said, in an effort to promote human rights improvements.

20. THE TASKS OF DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION AND TRANSFERABILITY 
Bunce, Valerie
ORBIS, vol. 52, no. 1, Winter 2008, pp. 25-41

Bunce, professor of international studies at Cornell University , asserts that there is no single road to democracy. Nevertheless, there are some factors that seem to have consistently positive effects on democratic development, including the existence of a large and diverse civil society as well as a sharp political break with the authoritarian past. Subsequently, these are followed by issues such as regular turnovers in political leadership as well as governing parties and stable state borders. Bunce asserts that a successful democratic transition must also include political institutions which empower parliaments and, in culturally diverse societies, give minorities’ political voice without locking them into permanent coalitions. The less significant issues include economic considerations. Nevertheless, Bunce advocates that these reforms are far more likely in democratic settings than in authoritarian regimes and far more supportive for robust economic performance.

21. THE TRANSATLANTIC TURNAROUND
Kupchan, Charles
Current History, vol. 107, no.707, March 2008 pp. 139-141

The author, professor of international affairs at Georgetown University and a senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, notes that relations between the United States and Europe hit rock bottom after the 2003 invasion of Iraq , raising the prospect of an irreparable transatlantic rift. Kupchan writes that, although the war won support from some European governments, it was staunchly opposed by many of the continent’s citizens. The author predicts “an ebullient transatlantic reunion will be in store for January 2009, but that’s when the hard realities of transatlantic cooperation might set in”. Kupchan believes that both the U.S. and Europe realize that they need each other for the foreseeable future, but that “the sobering news is that transforming this recognition into concrete partnership will remain difficult, no matter who holds power on the two sides of the Atlantic ”.

22. U.S. AFRICA COMMAND: A NEW STRATEGIC PARADIGM?
Mcfate, Sean
Military Review, vol. 88, no. 1, January-February 2008, pp. 10-21

McFate, an African security expert, says that the theme of partnership is heavily engrained in all discussions about the U.S. military’s newest command – that would be partnering with African nations, non-governmental and private voluntary organizations, and inter-governmental entities including the Departments of State, Homeland Security, Justice and Treasury. Why AFRICOM now? The author points to a confluence of reasons including Africa’s increased geopolitical importance, the need for counterweights against terrorism and drug, human and small-arms trafficking as well as competition with China for influence and access to natural resources. There is also the recognition that while African military forces are more than willing to participate in regional organizations such as the African Union and the Economic Community of West African States, they may “lack the command, training, equipment, logistics and institutional infrastructure required for complex peacekeeping.” He also says the new command offers the opportunity to focus on conflict prevention vs. conflict reaction. By focusing on pre-conflict operations, AFRICOM will help prevent problems from escalating into crises and “crises from becoming conflicts.”

23. US AND THEM: THE ENDURING POWER OF ETHNIC NATIONALISM
Muller, Jerry Z.
Foreign Affairs, Vol. 87, No. 2, March-April 2008

According to Muller, professor of history at the Catholic University of America, persistent ethnic nationalism does not happen by chance; rather, it is inevitable in the continued development of nation-states. Ethnic separation into different states has economic and cultural costs, besides bloodshed that has cost million of lives since the 19th century. Yet the expanding harmony of Europe since World War II represents not failure of ethnic nationalism but its success, having removed sources of conflict both within and between countries. "The fact that ethnic and state boundaries now largely coincide has meant that there are fewer disputes over borders or expatriate communities," Muller says, "leading to the most stable territorial configuration in European history." In existing multiethnic countries where ethnic violence erupts, partition into separate nation-states may be the most humane lasting solution.

24. WHAT MAKES A TERRORIST
Krueger, Alan
American, November/December 2007

Public policymakers have been grappling for decades trying to understand what it takes to make a terrorist so that effective anti-terrorism and counterterrorism measures can be developed and implemented. One of the most popular explanations is that terrorism is caused by economic deprivation and a lack of education, which creates the growth media for extremism that leads to terrorism. Princeton economics professor Alan Krueger has recently completed research that indicates that neither economic deprivation nor a lack of education are serious contributing factors. Krueger's research indicates that consistent with the work on international terrorist incidents, countries with fewer civil liberties and political rights were more likely to be the birthplaces of foreign terrorists. Geographic distance is also a factor. Most terrorists come from nearby nations, he says. Krueger says that the evidence suggests that terrorists care about influencing political outcomes, and are often motivated by geopolitical grievances.

U.S. Society and Values

25. THE GREENING OF MUSEUM ARCHITECTURE
Litt, Steven
ArtNews, vol. 106, no. 9, October 2007, pp. 190-193

The Grand Rapids ( Michigan ) Art Museum is the first newly constructed art museum in the U.S. to be certified under the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standard for environmentally-sound building practices. Museums in the U.S. have been slow to embark on “green” building design, fearing extra costs as well as potential difficulties in maintaining temperature and humidity controls necessary to protect works of art. Thanks to a growing number of conservation-minded philanthropists, there is increasing support for museums to adopt environmentally-friendly building practices. Among the other institutions featured in the article are the Denver Museum of Contemporary Art and the Indianapolis Museum of Art.

26. HOOP DREAMS
Euchner, Charles
American, vol. 2, no. 1, January-February 2008, pp. 26-34

With powerful global marketing, the National Basketball Association (NBA) is pushing basketball past soccer in its quest to become the world’s most popular sport. Basketball started on an international level in 1932 with the formation of the International Basketball Federation. Over 200 national federations are now members, organized since 1989 into five zones or "commissions": Africa, Americas , Asia, Europe, and Oceania . This has been helped considerably by the recruitment of foreign players to play on American teams. Before 1992, there were fewer than a dozen foreign-born players in the NBA. Soon it increased to over eighty-one foreign-born players from thirty-five different countries and territories. Only two teams lacked a foreign player, and the NBA champion San Antonio Spurs boasted three starters born outside the U.S. By the 2005 season, twenty-seven of the thirty NBA teams had at least one international player on their opening-day rosters. Perhaps the most famous foreign born player is Yao Ming, from China , the first international player who had not played college basketball in the U.S. and the number-one 2002 draft pick when he was selected by the Houston Rockets. In 2007, NBA teams selected fifteen players from thirteen countries.

27. MOBILIZING MILLENNIALS
Draut, Tamara Et Al. 
American Prospect, Special Report, vol. 19, no. 3, March 2008, pp. A1-A23

Today’s young adults are the first generation whose living standards may decline from their parents’. There is abundant evidence of declining economic opportunity and growing insecurity, with widespread debt and the shrinking number of jobs paying decent wages for most without advanced degrees. Most political campaign rhetoric has been aimed at middle-aged and retired voters, while the concerns of the young are largely confined to the margins. However, there is growing political activism, with 43 percent of young people ages 18-29 having voted this year, and an increasing interest in trade unionism. In this special series, eight authors appraise the gloomy outlook for today’s young people, and call for a sustained commitment to improve their economic horizons.

28. ONE NATION UNDER ELVIS: AN ENVIRONMENTALISM FOR US ALL
Solnit, Rebecca
Orion, March/April 2008

Solnit, a journalist and author, uses American country music to illustrate the disdain that many in the U.S. environmentalist movement have had toward minorities, the poor and many rural dwellers. She notes that this elitism has turned away many segments of America that would otherwise have been natural allies and played into the hands of entrenched economic interests. The potential for a broad-based environmental movement was thwarted by the anti-communism and anti-labor union sentiment of the post-World War II era, and was not helped by the culture clash that erupted in the 1960s; Solnit writes that the environmental justice movement has set out to rectify that. She writes that environmental movement’s founding father, John Muir, who himself grew up on a farm in Wisconsin, “did not so much flee the farm for the wilderness as invent wilderness as a counter-image to the farm on which his brutal father nearly worked him to death.” The ethos that nature is a place where one vacations or retreats to, but where one does not work or live, has colored the outlook of the U.S. environmental movement ever since.

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